Principles of environmental science : inquiry & applications / William P. Cunningham, Mary Ann Cunningham.

Includes index.

Brief Contents
CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 1
CHAPTER 2 Environmental Systems: Connections, Cycles, Flows, and Feedback Loops
24
CHAPTER 3 Species Populations, Interactions, and Communities 47
CHAPTER 4 Human Populations 73
CHAPTER 5 Biomes and Biodiversity 94
CHAPTER 6 Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature
Preserves 126
CHAPTER 7 Food and Agriculture 152
CHAPTER 8 Environmental Health and Toxicology 178
CHAPTER 9 Air: Climate and Pollution 201
CHAPTER 10 Water: Resources and Pollution 232
CHAPTER 11 Environmental Geology and Earth Resources 263
CHAPTER 12 Energy 283
CHAPTER 13 Solid and Hazardous Waste 310
CHAPTER 14 Economics and Urbanization 330
CHAPTER 15 Environmental Policy and Sustainability 354
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 1
OBJECTIVES 1
UNDERSTANDING OUR ENVIRONMENT 3
We live on a marvelous planet 3
What is environmental science? 3
SCIENCE AS A WAY OF KNOWING 4
Science depends on skepticism and accuracy 5
Deductive and inductive reasoning are both useful 5
Science studies problems methodically 6
Understanding probability helps reduce uncertainty 6
Calculating Probability 7
Statistics can calculate the probability that your results were random 7
Experimental design can reduce bias 7
What Are Statistics and Why Are They Important? 8
Science is a cumulative process 8
What is sound science? 10
Is environmental science the same as environmentalism? 10
THINKING ABOUT THINKING 11
Critical thinking is one approach to knowledge
and meaning 11
What do you need to think critically? 11
“Unpacking” an argument helps you understand it 12
Critical thinking helps you learn environmental science 12
A BRIEF HISTORY OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM 13
Nature protection has historic roots 13
Resource waste triggered pragmatic resource conservation 13
Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the preservation movement 14
Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental movement 14
Global interconnections have expanded environmentalism 15
We face many environmental problems 15
Making Sense of Data 16
There are also signs of hope 17
Indigenous peoples are guardians of much of the world’s biodiversity 20
WORKING WITH GRAPHS 22
CHAPTER 2 Environmental Systems: Connections, Cycles, Flows, and Feedback
Loops 24
OBJECTIVES 24
SYSTEMS 26
ELEMENTS OF LIFE 27
Matter is made of atoms, molecules, and compounds 27
Chemical bonds hold molecules together 28
Electrical charge is an important chemical characteristic 28
A ?Water Planet? 29
Organic compounds have a carbon backbone 29
Cells are the fundamental units of life 31
ENERGY 31
Energy occurs in different types and qualities 31
Thermodynamics regulates energy transfers 32
ENERGY FOR LIFE 32
Extremophiles live in severe conditions 32
Green plants get energy from the sun 33
How does photosynthesis capture energy? 34
FROM SPECIES TO ECOSYSTEMS 35
Organisms occur in populations, communities, and ecosystems 35
Food chains, food webs, and trophic levels link species 36
Remote Sensing, Photosynthesis, and Material Cycles 37
Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels 38
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND LIFE PROCESSES 40
The hydrologic cycle 40
The carbon cycle 40
The nitrogen cycle 41
The phosphorus cycle 43
The sulfur cycle 44
Extracting Data from a Graph 46
CHAPTER 3 Species Populations, Interactions, and Communities 47
OBJECTIVES 47
Community Recovery 48
HOW SPECIES DIVERSITY ARISES 49
Natural selection and adaptation modify species 49
All species live within limits 49
The ecological niche is a species’ role and environment 51
Species So Successful? 52
Speciation maintains species diversity 53
Taxonomy describes relationships among species 54
SPECIES INTERACTIONS SHAPE COMMUNITIES OF SPECIES 55
Competition leads to resource allocation 55
Predation affects species relationships 56
Some adaptations help avoid predation 57
Symbiosis: Intimate relations among species 58 Keystone species:
Influence all out of proportion 59
THE GROWTH OF SPECIES POPULATIONS 60
Growth without limits is exponential 60
Carrying capacity relates growth to its limits 61
Feedback produces logistic growth 61 Species respond to limits differently: r- and
K-selected species 62
PROPERTIES OF COMMUNITIES DEPEND ON SPECIES DIVERSITY 63
Diversity and abundance 63
Species patterns create community structure 64
Community properties emerge from diversity and structure 65
COMMUNITIES ARE DYNAMIC AND CHANGE OVER TIME 68
The nature of communities is debated 68
Ecological succession describes a history of community
development 68
Appropriate disturbances can benefit communities 69
What Can You Do? Knowing Where You Live 70
Comparing Exponential to Logistic
Population Growth 72
CHAPTER 4 Human Populations 73
OBJECTIVES 73
Population Growth 74
PAST AND CURRENT POPULATION GROWTH ARE VERY
DIFFERENT 75
Human populations grew slowly until recently 75
PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION GROWTH 76
Does environment or culture control human population growth? 76
Technology increases carrying capacity for humans 77
Population growth could bring benefits 77 78
MANY FACTORS DETERMINE POPULATION GROWTH 79
How many of us are there? 79
Fertility varies among cultures and at different times 81
Mortality offsets births 82
Life expectancy is rising worldwide 82
Living longer has profound social implications 83
FERTILITY IS INFLUENCED BY CULTURE 84
People want children for many reasons 84
Education and income affect the desire for children 85
A DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION CAN LEAD TO STABLE POPULATION SIZE 86
Economic and social conditions change mortality and births 86
Many countries are in a demographic transition 86
Two ways to complete the demographic transition 87 Improving
women’s lives helps reduce birth rates 88
DECISIONS ABOUT FERTILITY START WITH FAMILIES 88
Slowed Its Growth 89
Humans have always regulated their fertility 89
Today there are many options 89
WHAT KIND OF FUTURE ARE WE CREATING NOW?90
Interpreting Graphs 93
CHAPTER 5 Biomes and Biodiversity 94
OBJECTIVES 94
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES 96 Tropical moist forests are warm and wet year-round 98
Tropical seasonal forests have annual dry seasons 99
Tropical savannas and grasslands are dry most of the year 99
Deserts are hot or cold, but always dry 99
Temperate grasslands have rich soils 100
Temperate shrublands have summer drought 101 Temperate forests can be
evergreen or deciduous 101
Boreal forests lie north of the temperate zone 102
Tundra can freeze in any month 102
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS 103
Open ocean communities vary from surface to hadal zone 103
Tidal shores support rich, diverse communities 105
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS 106
Lakes have open water 107
Wetlands are shallow and productive 107
Streams and rivers are open systems 108
BIODIVERSITY 108
Increasingly, we identify species by genetic similarity 108 Biodiversity hot spots
are rich and threatened 109
BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY 110
All of our food comes from other organisms 110 Rare species provide important
medicines 110
Biodiversity can support ecosystem stability 110
Biodiversity has aesthetic and cultural benefits 111
WHAT THREATENS BIODIVERSITY? 111
Human activities have sharply increased extinctions 112
Habitat destruction is the main threat for many species 112
Fragmentation reduces habitat to small, isolated patches 112
Invasive species are a growing threat 114
Preserve Biodiversity 116
Pollution poses many different types of risk 116
Human population growth threatens biodiversity 117
Overharvesting has depleted or eliminated many species 117
Commercial collection serves medicinal and pet trades 118
Predator and pest control is expensive but widely practiced 118
ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT AND BIODIVERSITY
PROTECTION 119
Hunting and fishing laws protect reproductive populations 119
The endangered species act protects habitat and species 119
Recovery plans 120
Reauthorizing the ESA has been contentious 121
Habitat protection is a source of hope and controversy 122
International wildlife treaties protect global biodiversity 122
Confidence Limits in the BreedingBird Survey 124
CHAPTER 6 Environmental Conservation:
Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature Preserves 126
OBJECTIVES 126
WORLD FORESTS AND GRASSLANDS 128
Boreal and tropical forests are most abundant 128 Forest products include fuel,
paper, and lumber 129
Tropical forests are being cleared for lumber and farming 131
African Forests 133
Temperate forests have competing uses 134
What Can You Do? Lowering Your Forest Impacts 136
What Do You Think? Forest Thinning andSalvage Logging 137
GRASSLANDS 138
Grazing can be sustainable or damaging 138
Overgrazing threatens many U.S. rangelands 139
Ranchers are experimenting with new methods 139
ECOSYSTEM PRESERVATION 140
National parks serve many purposes 140
Users place conflicting demands on our parks 141
We expect parks to support wildlife 142
Species survival can depend on preserve size and shape 143
WORLD PARKS AND PRESERVES 144
Marine preserves aim to protect ocean species 145
Threats persist even in preserves 145
Contents
Conservation and economic development can work together 145
Biosphere reserves can aid indigenous communities 146
WILDERNESS AREAS 147
The Wilderness Act legalized the concept of wilderness 147
WILDLIFE REFUGES 148
Refuges are key in developing countries 148
Detecting Edge Effects 151
CHAPTER 7 Food and Agriculture 152
OBJECTIVES 152 153
FOOD AND NUTRITION 154 Millions of people don’t have enough to
eat 154 Famines are acute food shortages 155 We need the right kinds of food 156
Eating a balanced diet is essential for good health 157
KEY FOOD SOURCES 158
We depend on only a few crops for most of our food 158
Meat and dairy are important protein sources 158
Seafood is another protein source 160
SOIL: A RENEWABLE RESOURCE 161
Living organisms create unique properties of soil 161
There are many different soil types 162
WAYS WE USE AND ABUSE SOIL 163
Arable land is unevenly divided 163
Land degradation reduces crop yields 164
Soil erosion is widespread 164
Wind and water move soil 164
OTHER AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 166
All life needs water 166
Plants also need fertilizer 166
Energy is a key resource 167
Pest control saves crops 167
Your Food 168
NEW CROPS AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 168
The green revolution has increased yields 168
Genetic engineering could have benefits and costs 169
Most GMOs have been engineered for pest resistance or weed control 170
Is genetic engineering safe? 171
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 171
Coffee and Cocoa 172
Soil conservation is essential 172
Groundcover protects the soil 173
Reduced tillage can have many benefits 174
Low-input sustainable agriculture can benefit farmers, consumers, and
the environment 174
Using Relative Values 177
CHAPTER 8
Environmental Health and CLIMATE CHANGE 208
E1 Niño/Southern Oscillation can have far-reaching effects 209
Toxicology 178
Our actions are now causing global climate change 210
OBJECTIVES 178
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 179
Global disease burden is changing 180
Emergent and infectious diseases still kill millions of people 181
Conservation medicine attempts to combine ecology and medicine 183
Resistance to antibiotics and pesticides is increasing 185
Who should pay for health care? 185
TOXICOLOGY 186
How do toxins affect us? 187
Endocrine hormone disrupters are of special concern 188
MOVEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE OF TOXINS 189
Solubility and mobility determine when and where chemicals move 189
Exposure and susceptibility determine how we respond 189
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification increase chemical
concentrations 190
Persistence makes some materials a greater threat 191
Chemical interactions can increase toxicity 193
MECHANISMS FOR MINIMIZING TOXIC EFFECTS 193
Metabolic degradation and excretion eliminate toxins 193
Repair mechanisms mend damage 193
MEASURING TOXICITY 193
We usually test toxins on lab animals 194
There is a wide range of toxicity 195 Acute versus chronic doses and effects 195
Detectable levels aren’t always dangerous 196
RISK ASSESSMENT AND ACCEPTANCE 196
Our perception of risks isn’t always rational 196
How much risk is acceptable? 197
197 ESTABLISHING PUBLIC POLICY 198
Graphing Multiple Variables 200
CHAPTER 9 Air: Climate and Pollution 201
OBJECTIVES 201
THE ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE 203 The sun warms our world 203 Water stores
heat and winds redistribute it 204
Rainstorm in Your Neighborhood? 206 Why does it rain? 206 Large-scale winds
don’t move in a straight line 206 Ocean currents modify our climate 207 Seasonal
winds and monsoons have powerful effects 207
Greenhouse gases have many sources 210 Evidence of climate change is becoming
overwhelming 211 Who wins and who loses? 213 214 The Kyoto Protocol attempts to
slow climate change 215 There are many ways we can control greenhouse emissions 215
AIR POLLUTION 217 We have different ways to describe pollutants 218
Sources and problems of major pollutants 218
Indoor air can be more dangerous than outdoor air 220
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CLIMATE PROCESSES AND AIR POLLUTION 220
Air pollutants can travel far 220
Stratospheric ozone is declining 221 T
here are signs of progress 222
Cities create dust domes, smog, and heat islands 222
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 223
Polluted air is unhealthy 223
Plants are sensitive to pollutants 223
Smog and haze reduce visibility 224
Acid deposition has many effects 224
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 225
The most effective pollution-control strategy is to minimize production 225
CLEAN AIR LEGISLATION 226
Air regulations are controversial 227
CURRENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 228
Air pollution remains a problem in developing countries 228
There are signs of hope 229
E1 Niño and Ocean/Climate Conditions 231
CHAPTER 10 Water: Resources and Pollution 232
OBJECTIVES 232
WATER RESOURCES 233
The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water 233
MAJOR WATER COMPARTMENTS 235
Groundwater stores most fresh, liquid water 235
Rivers, lakes, and wetlands cycle quickly 237
Water-Poor Countries 237
The atmosphere is one of the smallest compartments 237
WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE 237
Water-poor countries have little rain and large populations 237
Agriculture is our greatest water user 238
FRESHWATER SHORTAGES 239
Many people lack access to clean water 240
Agriculture is reducing groundwater supplies 240
Dams, reservoirs, and canals redistribute water 241
Questions of justice often surround dam projects 241
Environmental costs of dams include evaporation and siltation 243
Water pricing and policies encourage waste 243
WATER MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 244
Everyone can help conserve water 244
Pollution 245
Efficiency is reducing water use in many areas 245
WATER POLLUTION 245
Pollution includes point sources and nonpoint sources 245 Biological pollution
includes pathogens and waste 246
Inorganic pollutants include metals, salts, and acids 248
Organic chemicals include pesticides and
industrial substances 249
Sediment and heat also degrade water 249
WATER QUALITY TODAY 251
The 1972 Clean Water Act protects our water 251
Waters are improving in wealthier countries but not in poorer ones 253
Groundwater is especially hard to clean up 254
Ocean pollution has few controls 255
POLLUTION CONTROL 256
Nonpoint sources are often harder to control than point sources 256
Human waste degrades naturally in low concentrations 257
Remediation can involve containment, extraction, or plants 259
WATER LEGISLATION 259
The Clean Water Act was ambitious, popular, and largely successful 259
Examining Pollution Sources 262
CHAPTER 11 Environmental Geology and
Earth Resources 263
OBJECTIVES 263
EARTH PROCESSES SHAPE OUR RESOURCES 265
Earth is a dynamic planet 265 Tectonic processes reshape continents and cause
earthquakes 265
MINERALS AND ROCKS 266
The rock cycle creates and recycles rocks 268 Weathering and sedimentation 268
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY 269
Metals are essential to our economy 269
Nonmetal mineral resources include gravel, clay, glass, and salts 269
The earth provides almost all our fuel 271
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF RESOURCE EXTRACTION 271
Mining has enormous environmental effects 271
You Using Right Now? 272
Technology 273
Processing contaminates air, water, and soil 274
CONSERVING GEOLOGIC RESOURCES 275
Recycling saves energy as well as materials 275
New materials can replace mined resources 275
GEOLOGIC HAZARDS 276
Earthquakes are frequent and deadly hazards 276 Volcanoes eject deadly gases
and ash 277
Floods are part of a river’s land-shaping processes 278
Mass wasting includes slides and slumps 279
Erosion destroys fi
;elds and undermines buildings 279
Exploring Recent Earthquakes 282
CHAPTER 12 Energy 283
OBJECTIVES 283
ENERGY SOURCES AND USES 284
What are the sources of our energy? 284
How do we use energy? 286
FOSSIL FUELS 287 Coal resources are vast 287
Oil resources aren’t evenly distributed 288
Oil shales and tar sands contain huge amounts of petroleum 289
Natural Gas 290
NUCLEAR POWER 291
How do nuclear reactors work? 291
Nuclear reactor design 292 What will we do with radioactive waste? 293
ENERGY CONSERVATION 293
Using energy more efficiently 293
Do to Save Energy 294
Cogeneration 295
SOLAR ENERGY 296
Solar collectors can be passive or active 296
Solar energy can produce high temperatures 297 Photovoltaic cells generate
electricity directly 297
Electrical energy is difficult and expensive to store or ship 299
Utilities are promoting renewable energy 299
FUEL CELLS 300
ENERGY FROM BIOMASS 301 Biofuels could replace oil-based fuels 301
Fuelwood is scarce in many developing countries 303 Dung and methane make
good fuels 303
ENERGY FROM THE EARTH’S FORCES 304
Falling water has been used as an energy source since ancient times 304
Wind energy is our fastest growing renewable resource 305
Geothermal heat, tides, and waves could supply substantial amounts of energy in
some places 306
WHAT’S OUR ENERGY FUTURE? 307
We can make our cities more livable 338
New urbanism incorporates smart growth 339
CHAPTER 13 Solid and Hazardous Waste 310
OBJECTIVES 310
WASTE 312
The waste stream is everything we throw away 312
WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS 313
Open dumps release hazardous materials into the air and water 313
Ocean dumping is nearly uncontrollable 314
Landfills receive most of our waste 314
Exporting waste exposes poor nations to hazards 315
Incineration produces energy but causes pollution 316
SHRINKING THE WASTE STREAM 317
Recycling captures resources from garbage 318 Composting recycles organic
waste 319
Energy from waste 320 Demanufacturing 320
Reuse is even more efficient than recycling 321
Reducing waste is often the cheapest option 322
HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTES 322
Hazardous waste includes many dangerous substances 323
Inventory 323
Federal legislation regulates hazardous waste 323
Superfund sites are those listed for federal cleanup 324
Brownfields present both liability and opportunity 325
Hazardous waste must be processed or stored permanently 326
How Much Waste Do You Produce, and How Much Do You Know How to
Manage? 329
CHAPTER 14 Economics and Urbanization 330
OBJECTIVES 330
URBANIZATION 332
Large cities are expanding rapidly 333
Immigration is driven by push and pull factors 334
Congestion, pollution, and water shortages plague many cities 334
Many cities lack sufficient housing 335
URBAN PLANNING 336
Transportation is crucial in city development 336
ECONOMICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 342
Can development be sustainable? 342
Our definitions of resources shape how we use them 342
Ecological economics incorporates principles of ecology 343
Scarcity can lead to innovation 344
Communal property resources are a classic problem in economics 345
NATURAL RESOURCE ACCOUNTING 346
New approaches measure real progress 347
Consumerism 348
Internalizing external costs 348
TRADE, DEVELOPMENT, AND JOBS 348
International trade can stimulate growth but externalize costs 349
Socially responsible development can help people and protect their
environment 349
GREEN BUSINESS AND GREEN DESIGN 350
Green design is good for business and the environment 350
Environmental protection creates jobs 351
Using a Logarithmic Scale 352
CHAPTER 15 Environmental Policy and
Sustainability 354
OBJECTIVES 354
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND LAW 356
How is policy created? 356
Policy formation can be complicated 357
Does U.S. environmental policy need an overhaul? 358
Laws affirm public policy 358
How can we manage complex systems? 361
INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS 363
WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO? 364
Environmental education is an important tool 365
Citizen science encourages everyone to participate 366
Environmental careers range from engineering to education 366
How much is enough? 368
Green consumerism has its limits 368
HOW CAN WE WORK TOGETHER? 369
Student environmental groups can have lasting effects 370
National organizations are influential but sometimes complacent 371
Principles of Environmental Science http://www.mhhe.com/cunningham4e
Radical groups capture attention and broaden the agenda 372
International nongovernmental organizations 373
SUSTAINABILITY ISA GLOBAL CHALLENGE 373
Campus Environmental Audit 376
Appendix 1 Vegetation Map 380
Appendix 2 World Population Density Map 381
Appendix 3 Temperature Regions and Ocean Currents Map 382
Glossary 383
Credits 393
Index 395
List of Case Studies
Chapter 1 Understanding Our Environment
Saving the Reefs of Apo Island 2
Chapter 2 Environmental Systems: Connections, Cycles, Flows, and Feedback Loops
A Natural System for Wastewater Treatment 25
Chapter 3 Species Populations, Interactions, and Communities
Species Diversity Promotes Community Recovery 48
Chapter 4 Human Populations
Cultural Choices and the Rate of Population Growth 74
Chapter 5 Biomes and Biodiversity
Predators Help Restore Biodiversity in Yellowstone 95
Chapter 6 Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature
Preserves
Saving an African Eden 127
Chapter 7 Food and Agriculture
Farming the Cerrado 153
Chapter 8 Environmental Health and Toxicology
The Next Pandemic? 179
Chapter 9 Air: Climate and Pollution
Stabilizing Our Climate 202
Chapter 10 Water: Resources and Pollution
Sharing the Chattahoochee 233
Chapter 11 Environmental Geology and Earth Resources
Coal-Bed Methane: A Clean Fuel or a Dirty Business? 264
Chapter 12 Energy
Renewable Energy Islands 284
Chapter 13 Solid and Hazardous Waste
The New Alchemy: Creating Gold from Garbage 311
Chapter 14 Economics and Urbanization
Curitiba: A Model Sustainable City 331
Chapter 15 Environmental Policy and Sustainability
Saving a Gray Whale Nursery 355