TY - BOOK AU - Cunningham,William P. AU - Cunningham,Mary Ann TI - Principles of environmental science: inquiry & applications SN - 9780071284486 U1 - 363.7 PY - 2008/// CY - Boston PB - McGraw-Hill KW - Food KW - Environmental science KW - Ecology KW - Environment KW - Geology N1 - Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 1 CHAPTER 2 Environmental Systems: Connections, Cycles, Flows, and Feedback Loops 24 CHAPTER 3 Species Populations, Interactions, and Communities 47 CHAPTER 4 Human Populations 73 CHAPTER 5 Biomes and Biodiversity 94 CHAPTER 6 Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature Preserves 126 CHAPTER 7 Food and Agriculture 152 CHAPTER 8 Environmental Health and Toxicology 178 CHAPTER 9 Air: Climate and Pollution 201 CHAPTER 10 Water: Resources and Pollution 232 CHAPTER 11 Environmental Geology and Earth Resources 263 CHAPTER 12 Energy 283 CHAPTER 13 Solid and Hazardous Waste 310 CHAPTER 14 Economics and Urbanization 330 CHAPTER 15 Environmental Policy and Sustainability 354 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 1 OBJECTIVES 1 UNDERSTANDING OUR ENVIRONMENT 3 We live on a marvelous planet 3 What is environmental science? 3 SCIENCE AS A WAY OF KNOWING 4 Science depends on skepticism and accuracy 5 Deductive and inductive reasoning are both useful 5 Science studies problems methodically 6 Understanding probability helps reduce uncertainty 6 Calculating Probability 7 Statistics can calculate the probability that your results were random 7 Experimental design can reduce bias 7 What Are Statistics and Why Are They Important? 8 Science is a cumulative process 8 What is sound science? 10 Is environmental science the same as environmentalism? 10 THINKING ABOUT THINKING 11 Critical thinking is one approach to knowledge and meaning 11 What do you need to think critically? 11 “Unpacking” an argument helps you understand it 12 Critical thinking helps you learn environmental science 12 A BRIEF HISTORY OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM 13 Nature protection has historic roots 13 Resource waste triggered pragmatic resource conservation 13 Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the preservation movement 14 Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental movement 14 Global interconnections have expanded environmentalism 15 We face many environmental problems 15 Making Sense of Data 16 There are also signs of hope 17 Indigenous peoples are guardians of much of the world’s biodiversity 20 WORKING WITH GRAPHS 22 CHAPTER 2 Environmental Systems: Connections, Cycles, Flows, and Feedback Loops 24 OBJECTIVES 24 SYSTEMS 26 ELEMENTS OF LIFE 27 Matter is made of atoms, molecules, and compounds 27 Chemical bonds hold molecules together 28 Electrical charge is an important chemical characteristic 28 A ?Water Planet? 29 Organic compounds have a carbon backbone 29 Cells are the fundamental units of life 31 ENERGY 31 Energy occurs in different types and qualities 31 Thermodynamics regulates energy transfers 32 ENERGY FOR LIFE 32 Extremophiles live in severe conditions 32 Green plants get energy from the sun 33 How does photosynthesis capture energy? 34 FROM SPECIES TO ECOSYSTEMS 35 Organisms occur in populations, communities, and ecosystems 35 Food chains, food webs, and trophic levels link species 36 Remote Sensing, Photosynthesis, and Material Cycles 37 Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels 38 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND LIFE PROCESSES 40 The hydrologic cycle 40 The carbon cycle 40 The nitrogen cycle 41 The phosphorus cycle 43 The sulfur cycle 44 Extracting Data from a Graph 46 CHAPTER 3 Species Populations, Interactions, and Communities 47 OBJECTIVES 47 Community Recovery 48 HOW SPECIES DIVERSITY ARISES 49 Natural selection and adaptation modify species 49 All species live within limits 49 The ecological niche is a species’ role and environment 51 Species So Successful? 52 Speciation maintains species diversity 53 Taxonomy describes relationships among species 54 SPECIES INTERACTIONS SHAPE COMMUNITIES OF SPECIES 55 Competition leads to resource allocation 55 Predation affects species relationships 56 Some adaptations help avoid predation 57 Symbiosis: Intimate relations among species 58 Keystone species: Influence all out of proportion 59 THE GROWTH OF SPECIES POPULATIONS 60 Growth without limits is exponential 60 Carrying capacity relates growth to its limits 61 Feedback produces logistic growth 61 Species respond to limits differently: r- and K-selected species 62 PROPERTIES OF COMMUNITIES DEPEND ON SPECIES DIVERSITY 63 Diversity and abundance 63 Species patterns create community structure 64 Community properties emerge from diversity and structure 65 COMMUNITIES ARE DYNAMIC AND CHANGE OVER TIME 68 The nature of communities is debated 68 Ecological succession describes a history of community development 68 Appropriate disturbances can benefit communities 69 What Can You Do? Knowing Where You Live 70 Comparing Exponential to Logistic Population Growth 72 CHAPTER 4 Human Populations 73 OBJECTIVES 73 Population Growth 74 PAST AND CURRENT POPULATION GROWTH ARE VERY DIFFERENT 75 Human populations grew slowly until recently 75 PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION GROWTH 76 Does environment or culture control human population growth? 76 Technology increases carrying capacity for humans 77 Population growth could bring benefits 77 78 MANY FACTORS DETERMINE POPULATION GROWTH 79 How many of us are there? 79 Fertility varies among cultures and at different times 81 Mortality offsets births 82 Life expectancy is rising worldwide 82 Living longer has profound social implications 83 FERTILITY IS INFLUENCED BY CULTURE 84 People want children for many reasons 84 Education and income affect the desire for children 85 A DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION CAN LEAD TO STABLE POPULATION SIZE 86 Economic and social conditions change mortality and births 86 Many countries are in a demographic transition 86 Two ways to complete the demographic transition 87 Improving women’s lives helps reduce birth rates 88 DECISIONS ABOUT FERTILITY START WITH FAMILIES 88 Slowed Its Growth 89 Humans have always regulated their fertility 89 Today there are many options 89 WHAT KIND OF FUTURE ARE WE CREATING NOW?90 Interpreting Graphs 93 CHAPTER 5 Biomes and Biodiversity 94 OBJECTIVES 94 TERRESTRIAL BIOMES 96 Tropical moist forests are warm and wet year-round 98 Tropical seasonal forests have annual dry seasons 99 Tropical savannas and grasslands are dry most of the year 99 Deserts are hot or cold, but always dry 99 Temperate grasslands have rich soils 100 Temperate shrublands have summer drought 101 Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous 101 Boreal forests lie north of the temperate zone 102 Tundra can freeze in any month 102 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS 103 Open ocean communities vary from surface to hadal zone 103 Tidal shores support rich, diverse communities 105 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS 106 Lakes have open water 107 Wetlands are shallow and productive 107 Streams and rivers are open systems 108 BIODIVERSITY 108 Increasingly, we identify species by genetic similarity 108 Biodiversity hot spots are rich and threatened 109 BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY 110 All of our food comes from other organisms 110 Rare species provide important medicines 110 Biodiversity can support ecosystem stability 110 Biodiversity has aesthetic and cultural benefits 111 WHAT THREATENS BIODIVERSITY? 111 Human activities have sharply increased extinctions 112 Habitat destruction is the main threat for many species 112 Fragmentation reduces habitat to small, isolated patches 112 Invasive species are a growing threat 114 Preserve Biodiversity 116 Pollution poses many different types of risk 116 Human population growth threatens biodiversity 117 Overharvesting has depleted or eliminated many species 117 Commercial collection serves medicinal and pet trades 118 Predator and pest control is expensive but widely practiced 118 ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT AND BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION 119 Hunting and fishing laws protect reproductive populations 119 The endangered species act protects habitat and species 119 Recovery plans 120 Reauthorizing the ESA has been contentious 121 Habitat protection is a source of hope and controversy 122 International wildlife treaties protect global biodiversity 122 Confidence Limits in the BreedingBird Survey 124 CHAPTER 6 Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature Preserves 126 OBJECTIVES 126 WORLD FORESTS AND GRASSLANDS 128 Boreal and tropical forests are most abundant 128 Forest products include fuel, paper, and lumber 129 Tropical forests are being cleared for lumber and farming 131 African Forests 133 Temperate forests have competing uses 134 What Can You Do? Lowering Your Forest Impacts 136 What Do You Think? Forest Thinning andSalvage Logging 137 GRASSLANDS 138 Grazing can be sustainable or damaging 138 Overgrazing threatens many U.S. rangelands 139 Ranchers are experimenting with new methods 139 ECOSYSTEM PRESERVATION 140 National parks serve many purposes 140 Users place conflicting demands on our parks 141 We expect parks to support wildlife 142 Species survival can depend on preserve size and shape 143 WORLD PARKS AND PRESERVES 144 Marine preserves aim to protect ocean species 145 Threats persist even in preserves 145 Contents Conservation and economic development can work together 145 Biosphere reserves can aid indigenous communities 146 WILDERNESS AREAS 147 The Wilderness Act legalized the concept of wilderness 147 WILDLIFE REFUGES 148 Refuges are key in developing countries 148 Detecting Edge Effects 151 CHAPTER 7 Food and Agriculture 152 OBJECTIVES 152 153 FOOD AND NUTRITION 154 Millions of people don’t have enough to eat 154 Famines are acute food shortages 155 We need the right kinds of food 156 Eating a balanced diet is essential for good health 157 KEY FOOD SOURCES 158 We depend on only a few crops for most of our food 158 Meat and dairy are important protein sources 158 Seafood is another protein source 160 SOIL: A RENEWABLE RESOURCE 161 Living organisms create unique properties of soil 161 There are many different soil types 162 WAYS WE USE AND ABUSE SOIL 163 Arable land is unevenly divided 163 Land degradation reduces crop yields 164 Soil erosion is widespread 164 Wind and water move soil 164 OTHER AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 166 All life needs water 166 Plants also need fertilizer 166 Energy is a key resource 167 Pest control saves crops 167 Your Food 168 NEW CROPS AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 168 The green revolution has increased yields 168 Genetic engineering could have benefits and costs 169 Most GMOs have been engineered for pest resistance or weed control 170 Is genetic engineering safe? 171 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 171 Coffee and Cocoa 172 Soil conservation is essential 172 Groundcover protects the soil 173 Reduced tillage can have many benefits 174 Low-input sustainable agriculture can benefit farmers, consumers, and the environment 174 Using Relative Values 177 CHAPTER 8 Environmental Health and CLIMATE CHANGE 208 E1 Niño/Southern Oscillation can have far-reaching effects 209 Toxicology 178 Our actions are now causing global climate change 210 OBJECTIVES 178 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 179 Global disease burden is changing 180 Emergent and infectious diseases still kill millions of people 181 Conservation medicine attempts to combine ecology and medicine 183 Resistance to antibiotics and pesticides is increasing 185 Who should pay for health care? 185 TOXICOLOGY 186 How do toxins affect us? 187 Endocrine hormone disrupters are of special concern 188 MOVEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE OF TOXINS 189 Solubility and mobility determine when and where chemicals move 189 Exposure and susceptibility determine how we respond 189 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification increase chemical concentrations 190 Persistence makes some materials a greater threat 191 Chemical interactions can increase toxicity 193 MECHANISMS FOR MINIMIZING TOXIC EFFECTS 193 Metabolic degradation and excretion eliminate toxins 193 Repair mechanisms mend damage 193 MEASURING TOXICITY 193 We usually test toxins on lab animals 194 There is a wide range of toxicity 195 Acute versus chronic doses and effects 195 Detectable levels aren’t always dangerous 196 RISK ASSESSMENT AND ACCEPTANCE 196 Our perception of risks isn’t always rational 196 How much risk is acceptable? 197 197 ESTABLISHING PUBLIC POLICY 198 Graphing Multiple Variables 200 CHAPTER 9 Air: Climate and Pollution 201 OBJECTIVES 201 THE ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE 203 The sun warms our world 203 Water stores heat and winds redistribute it 204 Rainstorm in Your Neighborhood? 206 Why does it rain? 206 Large-scale winds don’t move in a straight line 206 Ocean currents modify our climate 207 Seasonal winds and monsoons have powerful effects 207 Greenhouse gases have many sources 210 Evidence of climate change is becoming overwhelming 211 Who wins and who loses? 213 214 The Kyoto Protocol attempts to slow climate change 215 There are many ways we can control greenhouse emissions 215 AIR POLLUTION 217 We have different ways to describe pollutants 218 Sources and problems of major pollutants 218 Indoor air can be more dangerous than outdoor air 220 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CLIMATE PROCESSES AND AIR POLLUTION 220 Air pollutants can travel far 220 Stratospheric ozone is declining 221 T here are signs of progress 222 Cities create dust domes, smog, and heat islands 222 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 223 Polluted air is unhealthy 223 Plants are sensitive to pollutants 223 Smog and haze reduce visibility 224 Acid deposition has many effects 224 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 225 The most effective pollution-control strategy is to minimize production 225 CLEAN AIR LEGISLATION 226 Air regulations are controversial 227 CURRENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 228 Air pollution remains a problem in developing countries 228 There are signs of hope 229 E1 Niño and Ocean/Climate Conditions 231 CHAPTER 10 Water: Resources and Pollution 232 OBJECTIVES 232 WATER RESOURCES 233 The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water 233 MAJOR WATER COMPARTMENTS 235 Groundwater stores most fresh, liquid water 235 Rivers, lakes, and wetlands cycle quickly 237 Water-Poor Countries 237 The atmosphere is one of the smallest compartments 237 WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE 237 Water-poor countries have little rain and large populations 237 Agriculture is our greatest water user 238 FRESHWATER SHORTAGES 239 Many people lack access to clean water 240 Agriculture is reducing groundwater supplies 240 Dams, reservoirs, and canals redistribute water 241 Questions of justice often surround dam projects 241 Environmental costs of dams include evaporation and siltation 243 Water pricing and policies encourage waste 243 WATER MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 244 Everyone can help conserve water 244 Pollution 245 Efficiency is reducing water use in many areas 245 WATER POLLUTION 245 Pollution includes point sources and nonpoint sources 245 Biological pollution includes pathogens and waste 246 Inorganic pollutants include metals, salts, and acids 248 Organic chemicals include pesticides and industrial substances 249 Sediment and heat also degrade water 249 WATER QUALITY TODAY 251 The 1972 Clean Water Act protects our water 251 Waters are improving in wealthier countries but not in poorer ones 253 Groundwater is especially hard to clean up 254 Ocean pollution has few controls 255 POLLUTION CONTROL 256 Nonpoint sources are often harder to control than point sources 256 Human waste degrades naturally in low concentrations 257 Remediation can involve containment, extraction, or plants 259 WATER LEGISLATION 259 The Clean Water Act was ambitious, popular, and largely successful 259 Examining Pollution Sources 262 CHAPTER 11 Environmental Geology and Earth Resources 263 OBJECTIVES 263 EARTH PROCESSES SHAPE OUR RESOURCES 265 Earth is a dynamic planet 265 Tectonic processes reshape continents and cause earthquakes 265 MINERALS AND ROCKS 266 The rock cycle creates and recycles rocks 268 Weathering and sedimentation 268 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY 269 Metals are essential to our economy 269 Nonmetal mineral resources include gravel, clay, glass, and salts 269 The earth provides almost all our fuel 271 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF RESOURCE EXTRACTION 271 Mining has enormous environmental effects 271 You Using Right Now? 272 Technology 273 Processing contaminates air, water, and soil 274 CONSERVING GEOLOGIC RESOURCES 275 Recycling saves energy as well as materials 275 New materials can replace mined resources 275 GEOLOGIC HAZARDS 276 Earthquakes are frequent and deadly hazards 276 Volcanoes eject deadly gases and ash 277 Floods are part of a river’s land-shaping processes 278 Mass wasting includes slides and slumps 279 Erosion destroys fi ;elds and undermines buildings 279 Exploring Recent Earthquakes 282 CHAPTER 12 Energy 283 OBJECTIVES 283 ENERGY SOURCES AND USES 284 What are the sources of our energy? 284 How do we use energy? 286 FOSSIL FUELS 287 Coal resources are vast 287 Oil resources aren’t evenly distributed 288 Oil shales and tar sands contain huge amounts of petroleum 289 Natural Gas 290 NUCLEAR POWER 291 How do nuclear reactors work? 291 Nuclear reactor design 292 What will we do with radioactive waste? 293 ENERGY CONSERVATION 293 Using energy more efficiently 293 Do to Save Energy 294 Cogeneration 295 SOLAR ENERGY 296 Solar collectors can be passive or active 296 Solar energy can produce high temperatures 297 Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly 297 Electrical energy is difficult and expensive to store or ship 299 Utilities are promoting renewable energy 299 FUEL CELLS 300 ENERGY FROM BIOMASS 301 Biofuels could replace oil-based fuels 301 Fuelwood is scarce in many developing countries 303 Dung and methane make good fuels 303 ENERGY FROM THE EARTH’S FORCES 304 Falling water has been used as an energy source since ancient times 304 Wind energy is our fastest growing renewable resource 305 Geothermal heat, tides, and waves could supply substantial amounts of energy in some places 306 WHAT’S OUR ENERGY FUTURE? 307 We can make our cities more livable 338 New urbanism incorporates smart growth 339 CHAPTER 13 Solid and Hazardous Waste 310 OBJECTIVES 310 WASTE 312 The waste stream is everything we throw away 312 WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS 313 Open dumps release hazardous materials into the air and water 313 Ocean dumping is nearly uncontrollable 314 Landfills receive most of our waste 314 Exporting waste exposes poor nations to hazards 315 Incineration produces energy but causes pollution 316 SHRINKING THE WASTE STREAM 317 Recycling captures resources from garbage 318 Composting recycles organic waste 319 Energy from waste 320 Demanufacturing 320 Reuse is even more efficient than recycling 321 Reducing waste is often the cheapest option 322 HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTES 322 Hazardous waste includes many dangerous substances 323 Inventory 323 Federal legislation regulates hazardous waste 323 Superfund sites are those listed for federal cleanup 324 Brownfields present both liability and opportunity 325 Hazardous waste must be processed or stored permanently 326 How Much Waste Do You Produce, and How Much Do You Know How to Manage? 329 CHAPTER 14 Economics and Urbanization 330 OBJECTIVES 330 URBANIZATION 332 Large cities are expanding rapidly 333 Immigration is driven by push and pull factors 334 Congestion, pollution, and water shortages plague many cities 334 Many cities lack sufficient housing 335 URBAN PLANNING 336 Transportation is crucial in city development 336 ECONOMICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 342 Can development be sustainable? 342 Our definitions of resources shape how we use them 342 Ecological economics incorporates principles of ecology 343 Scarcity can lead to innovation 344 Communal property resources are a classic problem in economics 345 NATURAL RESOURCE ACCOUNTING 346 New approaches measure real progress 347 Consumerism 348 Internalizing external costs 348 TRADE, DEVELOPMENT, AND JOBS 348 International trade can stimulate growth but externalize costs 349 Socially responsible development can help people and protect their environment 349 GREEN BUSINESS AND GREEN DESIGN 350 Green design is good for business and the environment 350 Environmental protection creates jobs 351 Using a Logarithmic Scale 352 CHAPTER 15 Environmental Policy and Sustainability 354 OBJECTIVES 354 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND LAW 356 How is policy created? 356 Policy formation can be complicated 357 Does U.S. environmental policy need an overhaul? 358 Laws affirm public policy 358 How can we manage complex systems? 361 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS 363 WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO? 364 Environmental education is an important tool 365 Citizen science encourages everyone to participate 366 Environmental careers range from engineering to education 366 How much is enough? 368 Green consumerism has its limits 368 HOW CAN WE WORK TOGETHER? 369 Student environmental groups can have lasting effects 370 National organizations are influential but sometimes complacent 371 Principles of Environmental Science http://www.mhhe.com/cunningham4e Radical groups capture attention and broaden the agenda 372 International nongovernmental organizations 373 SUSTAINABILITY ISA GLOBAL CHALLENGE 373 Campus Environmental Audit 376 Appendix 1 Vegetation Map 380 Appendix 2 World Population Density Map 381 Appendix 3 Temperature Regions and Ocean Currents Map 382 Glossary 383 Credits 393 Index 395 List of Case Studies Chapter 1 Understanding Our Environment Saving the Reefs of Apo Island 2 Chapter 2 Environmental Systems: Connections, Cycles, Flows, and Feedback Loops A Natural System for Wastewater Treatment 25 Chapter 3 Species Populations, Interactions, and Communities Species Diversity Promotes Community Recovery 48 Chapter 4 Human Populations Cultural Choices and the Rate of Population Growth 74 Chapter 5 Biomes and Biodiversity Predators Help Restore Biodiversity in Yellowstone 95 Chapter 6 Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature Preserves Saving an African Eden 127 Chapter 7 Food and Agriculture Farming the Cerrado 153 Chapter 8 Environmental Health and Toxicology The Next Pandemic? 179 Chapter 9 Air: Climate and Pollution Stabilizing Our Climate 202 Chapter 10 Water: Resources and Pollution Sharing the Chattahoochee 233 Chapter 11 Environmental Geology and Earth Resources Coal-Bed Methane: A Clean Fuel or a Dirty Business? 264 Chapter 12 Energy Renewable Energy Islands 284 Chapter 13 Solid and Hazardous Waste The New Alchemy: Creating Gold from Garbage 311 Chapter 14 Economics and Urbanization Curitiba: A Model Sustainable City 331 Chapter 15 Environmental Policy and Sustainability Saving a Gray Whale Nursery 355 ER -